Brief History of the Mong People
By Paoze Thao, Ph.D.
Professor of Linguistics and Education
California State University, Monterey Bay
September 26, 2004 (Rev. 6-27-2026, 9-9-2026)
By Paoze Thao, Ph.D.
Professor of Linguistics and Education
California State University, Monterey Bay
September 26, 2004 (Rev. 6-27-2026, 9-9-2026)
Click Here for the PDF Version 9-9-2026
Disclaimer: The findings, data, and conclusions presented in this manuscript are based on ongoing research, preliminary studies drawn from a plethora of literature, published and self-published, ethnographic interviews, social media, and eyewitness accounts available through personal communication and in the public domain. At the time of publication, the available evidence is not yet conclusive. This work is intended to contribute to current scientific dialogue and should not be considered a final, definitive statement or used as a basis for practical or clinical application. Further research and replication are required to validate these initial observations. Given that, the opinions expressed in this article are those of the author alone and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Mong Federation, Inc, and California State University Monterey Bay.
INTRODUCTION
From time immemorial, the Mong as a people may have existed in China for over five thousand years. The Chinese referred to them as the “Miao” (Pollard, 1909; Hudspeth, 1939; Bernatzik, 1947; Mickey, 1947; Arlotto, 1972; Thao, 1999; Thao, 2023). The Miao comprise four groups of minority peoples in China, distinctively related through culture or language, consisting of the Hmu in Guizhou, the Qo Xiong in west Hunan, the A-Mao [A-Hmao] (Hou, 2016) in Yunnan, and the Mong of Guizhou, Sichuan, Guangxi, and Yunnan (Sheposh, 2021; Encyclopedia Britannica, Tapp, n.d.;). Schotter (cited in Bernatzik, 1947), in the Chinese province of Kweichow, used 'Meau' to designate all non-Han people (p. 7). The Laotians and Thais referred to those in Laos as “Meo” (Barney & Smalley, 1953; Thao, 1999; Thao, 2023). Most of the terms “Miao,” “Mean,” and “Meo” have negative connotations. However, we call ourselves “Mong,” pronounced in phonetic transcription as [mõŋ], and spelled “Mong” in English and “Moob” in the Mong language (Thao, 1999; Thao, 2023). For the purpose of this document, the author will use the spelling term “Mong” exclusively, which we use in lieu of any other spelling terms. Given that, the spelling “Mong” will substitute for any other spelling terms in this article.
The Mong are a close-knit ethnic group, comprising approximately 7 million of the 11 Miao population worldwide. We speak a pre-Sinitic language group classified as “Mong-Mien” within the Sino-Tibetan language family in Asia (Arlotto, 1972; Thao, 1999; Thao, 2023). Because we had no writing system of our own, Mandarin and Western scholars recorded our early history until 1909. In China, British United Methodist missionary Samuel Pollard founded the Pollard Script to translate the Bible for the A-Mao (A-Hmao) (Flowery Miao) (Pollard, 1909). A specimen of the Pollard Script was examined, but it is not mutually intelligible with the RPA system currently used in the U.S. today.
In 1950s Laos, Western missionaries and linguists collaborated to create the Romanized Popular Alphabet (RPA), an orthographic system initially designed to facilitate Christian evangelism and native literacy among the Mong people. In Xieng Khouang province, Dr. G. Linwood Barney of the Christian and Missionary Alliance (CMA) began codifying the language to aid Mong Protestant converts in biblical translation and theological instruction. At the same time, French Catholic priest Father Yves Bertrais used the French language to develop a parallel Romanized script in Luang Prabang province to serve Catholic converts at Roob Nyuj Qus. Recognizing the need for a unified system, American linguist Dr. William A. Smalley from the Christian and Missionary Alliance subsequently harmonized and refined these separate frameworks, implementing a precise eight-tone marking system to standardize the orthography. Ultimately, while engineered for ecclesiastical purposes, the RPA transcended its missionary origins to become the preeminent and most widely adopted writing system across the global Mong diaspora today.
Before the mid-twentieth-century development of an indigenous orthography, Mong historical narratives were primarily mediated through Sinitic and Western scholarship. These external accounts frequently introduced ethnocentric biases, shaped by historical regional conflicts and the limitations of an etic research lens. Consequently, contemporary scholarship calls for a critical historiographical revision from an emic perspective. Today, this effort is supported by a globally dispersed Mong diaspora spanning East Asia, Southeast Asia, the Americas, Europe, and Oceania (Thao, 2023).
With regard to the early relationship with the Chinese, Hou Jian (AKA Yangf Xongx Dluas) (2016), a Mong ethnic scholar in Yunnan, in his book The Miao Guides as part of Wenshan Miao Studies Library, asserted that, the renowned Chinese historian Wang Tongling (2016) in his History of the Chinese Nation, regarded the Mong as an “elder brother” and credited them for their “criminal law, development of weapons, and establishment of religion” (General Preface, Para 2) and that “a great deal of knowledge within Han culture originated in the development of Miao culture” (Hou, 20216, Preface, Para 2) and “early Miao culture laid the foundation for the inheritance and development of Chinese and made a major contribution to Chinese culture” (Hou, 2016, Preface, Para 2).
The ancestral lineage and geographic origins of the Mong remain a subject of ongoing scholarly debate. However, at the turn of the century, Thao (1999 & 2023) postulated four theories of the Mong origin that emerged from research and studies, as discussed below:
(1) The Theory of Mesopotamian Origin stating that the Mong were from Mesopotamia (Savina, 1924);
(2) The Theory of Ultimate Southern Origin indicating that the Mong could have come from the South, either from India, Myanmar (Burma), or Tonkin (Eisktedt, 1943 as cited in Bernatzik in 1970; Graham, 1976; Linh Yeuh-Hwa, 1976; Quincy, 1988);
(3) The Theory of China Origin mentioned that the Mong were in China before the Han (Chinese) (Mottin, 1980; Bernatzik, 1970; Graham, 1976; Linh Yeuh Wah , 1976; Geddes, 1976), and
(4) The theory of Russian Origin stating that the Mong were from Siberia, Russia (Larteguy, 1976; Thao, 1999; Thao, 2023). However, most researchers believe that the Mong were in China before the Chinese. Hou Jian (AKA Yangf Xongx Dluas) (2016) confirmed that “The Yellow River is our [Mong] homeland” (Hou, 2016, Preface, Para 2).
Due to constant conflict with the Chinese, the Mong fought them for over 5,000 years. Hou Jian (AKA Yangf Xongx Dluas) (2016), a Mong ethnic scholar in Yunnan, in his book The Miao Scripture for Guiding the Way, states that, according to the History of the Miao in the 6th year of the Republic of China, the Mong in Northeastern Yunnan and Western Guizhou, including those in Yunnan, Guizhou, and Sichuan, started migrating into the Wenshan area or “Paajtawglaag” an area where the Mong lived) in 1917 and gradually moved from western Guizhou toward Kunming, Zhaotong, and Sichuan until 1921 (Hou, 2016, p. 15). In the late 18th century, around 1810, the Mong migrated from China to settle in Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, and Myanmar (Burma) (Mottin, 1980). In July 2018, the author and his family visited Wenshan (Paajtawglaag), Yunnan, China, and saw a stage in a mountainous area with a big sign that read the following words.
“HMONGB TLOUT NDEUF NAT DEUF NDOX NDROUT” in Chinese Mong, transliterated as “MONG DLHAU NTAWM NO TAWM NTUJ NRAU,” meaning “Mong Leaving This Place for Outside World” (See: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eP-rNrhBjtU)
This suggests that the Wenshan area in southeastern Yunnan Province, China, may have been a center of the Mong before they migrated to other Southeast Asian countries.
In Laos, during the Vietnam conflict, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) of the United States of America recruited the Mong to serve as the “U.S. Secret Army in Laos” to fight against the Vietnamese Communists and the Pathet Lao from 1960 – 1975. Since the Communists took over Laos in 1975, the Mong were sought for political persecution. As a result, the U.S. Congress admitted some Mong to resettle in the United States between 1975 and 1980. Other countries that admitted the Mong to resettle include France, Canada, French Guiana, Australia, Germany, and Argentina (Thao, 1999; Thao, 2023). The following is a chronology of the Mong history:
Mong history dates back to the confusion of language in Ta Soa (the “Sandy Area”) (Savina, 1924). The Mong referred to “Taj Xuabzeb Haav Suabpuam, and, for short, “Ta Soa.” Savina (1924) asserted that the Mong belonged to a subgroup of the Turanians (a Caucasoid people) originating in the Pamir Mountains of Central Asia, between Iran and Iraq. The Aryans forced them out, so they migrated through Turkestan, Russia, Siberia, Mongolia, Manchuria, Honan, Tibet, and the Yellow River. Whether the Mong constitute a branch of the Turanians or not, the question remains an open question requiring further empirical investigation.
The following is a chronicle of Mong history. Please note that a comprehensive analysis of Mong historical trajectories cannot be made without an integrated examination of Chinese historical developments, and that a comprehensive analysis of global historical trajectories likewise requires such an examination.
Chinese Legends
Chinese legends tell us that around 2700 BCE, a Chinese Emperor U-Wang ruled China, but the Mong were powerful enough to voice their concern in government, so they could not tolerate his treatment. Given that around 2500 BCE, Chinese mythology foretold that Chiyou, a legendary tribal leader thought to be a Miao leader, led the Jiuli tribe (or the Nine Li), an ancient confederation of 81 clans, to revolt against the Hoang-ti, later known as the “Yellow Emperor.” They fought at the Battle of Zhuolu (New World Encyclopedia, n.d.). Vang (2013) referred to Chiyou as “Txivyawg,” meaning "Grandfather" (p. 32). However, no historical document mentions the existence of “Txivyawg” in any literature. While some contemporary oral histories and scholars connect Chi You to the ancestry of the modern Mong people, establishing a definitive historical lineage remains complex. In official contemporary Chinese nomenclature, the Mong are classified under the broader Miao ethnonym. This designation encompasses four primary ethno-linguistic subgroups distributed across southwest China: (1) Hmu (primarily residing in southeast Guizhou); (2) Qo Xiong / Xong (or "Red Miao," situated in western Hunan); (3) A-Hmao (or "Flowery Miao," located in western Guizhou and northeast Yunnan); and Mong (dispersed across parts of Guizhou, Sichuan, Guangxi, and Yunnan). Compounding this genealogical ambiguity is the historical tendency of ancient Han-centric texts to use broad, exonymic terminology for non-Han populations, making precise historical ethno-cultural correlations difficult to verify.
After the Yellow Emperor defeated Chiyou, he began suppressing the Miao by reorganizing them into the eight-family system (Quincy, 1988 & 1995). The author thinks that the eight-family system are still known to today Mong: (1) Mong Si [Moob Sib], (2) Black Mong [Moob Dlub], (3) Mong Dlang [Moob Dlaaj], (4) Mong Sua Fang [Moob Suav Faaj], (5) Mong Yuapa [Moob Ncuav Pa], (6) Mong Yochua [Moob Yobtshuab], (7) Flowery Mong [Moob Paaj] or Mong Kuabang [Moob Quasnpaab], and (8) Mong Lahau [Moob Labhaus], according to the colors of their costumes (Thao, 1999; Thao, 2023). During the Shang Dynasty, there were no historical records or evidence that the Hmong Daw even existed yet.
The Xia Dynasty (2497 BCE – 2100 BCE)
• There was no historical record of any Chinese dynasty existing in ancient Chinese history, except for some traditional dates about the Xia Dynasty, considered mythical based on archaeological evidence along the Yellow River and ancient texts. Clouatre (2022) noted that the Xia Dynasty was traditionally regarded as the first dynasty in Chinese history, dating back to 1600 BCE. Other sources did not even mention this dynasty.
• Meyer (1994) asserted that, around 1766-1122 BCE or 1523-1027 BCE, an individual by a family name Zi developed “a remarkable civilization in the North China plain” (p. 120) evidenced by “later classics, especially the Classic of Poetry” (p. 120) recording “civilization in East Asia,” also “confirmed by archaeological discoveries” (p. 120) that “brought to light remains of the later royal Shang city” (p. 120), documenting “a major source of Shang life `
compiled in the later Zhou dynasty” (pp. 120
-1210) about Shang’s aristocracy “concerned with ritual” (p. 121). Around this era, there is no mention of the Mong.
The Zhou (Chou) Dynasty (1028 BCE-257 BCE)
• Quincy (1988 & 1994) indicated that the early King Wu of the Zhou (Chou) Dynasty faced significant obstacles in consolidating political authority from the last emperor of the Shang Dynasty and needed help from the Miao. As a result, King Wu and the Mong took an oath to be Kwvtij (sworn brothers). Later, the descendants of the Zhou Dynasty may have forgotten this oath. In A History of China, Eberhard (1950) argued that the Zhou Dynasty expanded eastward and southward and used a highly structured feudal system to maintain political and military order. So, the Zhou Dynasty encroached on the Mong from the Central Plains, but the Mong resisted, and the Zhou Dynasty subjugated them to imperial authority. Therefore, the Zhou Dynasty pushed the Mong and displaced them to Southern Kansu to serve as a political buffer in an unsecured location against a fierce mountain people controlled by a chief called “The White Wolf” (Quincy, 1988 & Quincy, 1994).
The Qin Dynasty (221 BCE – 206 BCE) or the Ch’in Dynasty (256-207 BCE)
• During the Qin Dynasty or Ch’in Dynasty, Meyer (1994) indicated that the founding monarchy structured the empire in alignment with the Legalist authoritarian school of thought (Fa-jia) articulated by preceding generations. This was based on a strict governing philosophy around total state control and draconian governance to centralize power under the emperor. However, the Mong lived in mountainous areas, so they remained outside the Qin Dynasty's geopolitical sphere, which gave them some peace and stability during this period (Quincy, 1988 & 1995).
The Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 AD).
• At the end of the Qin Dynasty, or Ch’in Dynasty, several political factions contended for succession, including the troops of the Qin and General Xiang Yu of the state of Chu in the Yangtze River Valley and a peasant colleague, Liu Bang. Then, Liu Bang emerged victorious and established the Han Dynasty (Meyer, 1994).
• Between the 1950s and the early 2000s, scholarship on the Han Dynasty—informed by Burton Watson’s translations of Sima Qian’s foundational Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian, c. 109–91 BCE) and Ying-shih Yu’s Trade and Expansion in Han China (1967)—established a clear context for Emperor Wu’s expansionist policies. Upon ascending the throne, Emperor Wu formally elevated Confucianism as the state ideology while maintaining a pragmatic tolerance for other philosophical traditions (Meyer, 1994). To consolidate imperial control over the southern frontiers, the Han administration enacted a "southern pacification" policy involving forced migration (Quincy, 1988, 1995). This strategy deployed military, social, and political mechanisms to compel indigenous southern populations to relocate to rugged, mountainous terrain. Ultimately, these colonization and resettlement initiatives aimed to subjugate local groups, including the Mong, and accelerate their Sinicization and assimilation into mainstream Chinese culture (Wikipedia, 2026).
• Meyer (1994) asserted that the Han Dynasty continued to elevate Confucianism into the political philosophy that evolved into “eclectic Confucianism” (p. 163), blending the core of Confucian moral and political doctrines with ideas from others to form an integrated school of thought.
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The Mong Kingdom (400 A.D. – 900 A.D.)
According to Quincy (1998), a historical or legendary Mong Kingdom existed from 400 to 900 A.D. By the mid-sixth century, Chinese authorities were reportedly "forced to concede the existence of a [H]Mong Kingdom" (p. 38). Narrative accounts from this period feature King "Tchu Kyou Toua Hang," whose daughter, "Ngao Shing," was said to possess a magical flag (p. 41). However, the kingdom's sovereignty was compromised by the political stratagems of Ty Ching, a commanding general in the Chinese military. General Ty Ching fabricated claims regarding the destruction of the magical flag and proposed a fraudulent peace treaty brokered by a marriage alliance between Ngao Shing and the Chinese imperial heir (pp. 41–42). When Ngao Shing rejected the proposal, Ty Ching imprisoned and tortured her, ultimately leading to her death (pp. 42–43) and the subsequent collapse of the Mong Kingdom.
Sung Dynasty (907 AD).
• The Sunday proposed a fake marriage of a Mong princess, Ngao Shing (Nkauj See), to a Chinese prince next in line for the throne and imposed a policy of fight or flight on the Mong (Quincy, 1988 & Quincy, 1995).
Tang Dynasty (618 AD – 917 A.D.)
• The Tang Dynasty sustained military campaigns were aimed at reclaiming previously lost territories and successfully integrated extensive regions into the Chinese administrative framework (Quincy, 1995). As imperial control extended into peripheral hill and mountain terrains, these expansionist policies imposed significant socio-economic hardships on indigenous populations, specifically the Mong.
Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)
• The Ming Dynasty maintained restrictive policies against the Mongols, enforced isolationist policies, including the construction of localized border fortifications along the Hunan-Guizhou frontier (Quincy, 1995). It is known as the Miaojiang Great Wall, constructed between 1544 and 1622, spanning over 120 miles (190 kilometers) through Fenghuang County in Hunan Province, China today.
Manchu Dynasty (1644-1911)
• Under the Manchu Dynasty, the Mong continued to be suppressed, marginalized, and faced severe economic exploitation through heavy taxes (Quincy, 1988; Quincy, 1995).
Mong Migration (1810-1820)
• Some of the Mong migrated to Laos by way of Vietnam, then to Myanmar (Burma), and Thailand in the late 17th century, but the influx of the Mong migration started from 1810-1820 (Mottin, 1980). The Mong from the basin of the Hoai that sprawled through Hupeh, Kiang-Si, and Hunan, and the Blue River from the basin of the West River, continued their journey to the northeast as far as Kweichow. Kweichow was the base of the Mong concentration, from
which they migrated to other provinces, such as Kiangsi in the south, Kwangtung in the north, Szechwan in the west, and Yunnan in the west (Quincy, 1988 & Quincy, 1995).
The Treaty of Tien Tshin (1884)
• In 1884, France and China signed the Treaty of Tien Tshin, and the Mong in Laos assisted France in pushing back the Chinese garrisons (the warlords and bandits) that occupied various sectors of the frontier in Laos, known as “the Black Flags,” to China (Quincy, 1988 & Quincy, 1995);
Relationship between the French and the Mong in Laos Deteriorated (1917-1922)
• In 1916, the French applied and imposed several taxes on the Mong in Laos. In 1917-1922, due to the imposition of heavy taxes on the Mong, Pang Chay led the Mong to revolt against the French, known as “The Pang Chay War” (Rog Paaj Cai), also known by the Laotian as “Rog Phi-ba” (“The Mad Spirit War”), and the French called this war “La Guerre des Fou” (The War of the Madmen) (Thao, 1999; Thao, 2023).
World War II (1941-1945)
• In 1941-1945, the Mong were involved in World War II. This war was known by the Mong as “Rog Yivpoos” (The Japanese War);
• In 1946, it was the beginning of the “Cold War” between the United States and the Soviet Union;
• In 1963-1975, the Mong in Laos were involved in “The U.S. Secret Army in Laos” as part of the Vietnam War;
• In 1975, the Mong in Laos migrated to the refugee camps in Thailand;
• In 1976, the Mong refugees in Thailand began their resettlement in Western countries, e.g., the United States, France, French Guiana, Germany, Canada, and Australia;
Classification of the Mong in the United States and in Laos
The Mong in Laos and the United States can be culturally and linguistically classified into two groups, distinguished by differences in language, culture, and costume. One group is the “Mong,” who always identify themselves as the “Mong,” phonetically transcribed as [mõŋ] and pronounced [mõŋ], with the initial “M,” and spelled “Mong.” Another group is the “Hmong,” who identify themselves as the “Hmong,” phonetically transcribed as [hmõŋ], beginning with the initial “H” and spelled “Hmong.” No matter how each group pronounced their group, [ h ] is only a puff of air as the sound [ m ] is articulated, so the correct pronunciation for both groups still comes out to [mõŋ]; so does the correct spelling “Mong.” Otherwise, the word “Hmong” will be pronounced [hmõŋ], and the people may be mistaken for “H-Mong.” Readers are encouraged to read more in Mong education at the crossroads (Thao, 2023) for more details. Authors have used the spelling term “Mong” (LeMoine, 2013) in Parlong (H)Mong. Has lug moob ha lou mong. Hais lus hmoob hai lou hmong; Lyman, 1949 as cited in the Foreword of Lyman, 1962; Barney, 1957; Lyman, 1969; Lyman, 1974: Thao, 1997; Xiong et al, 1983; Thao, 1994; Thoj, 1981, n.d.; Xiong, 1981; Thoj & Xyooj, 1984; Thao, 1999; Yang, 1999; Thao, 2000; Thao, 2023), but the spelling term “Hmong” was just introduced first time by Garrett (1974) and followed by Yang (1975).
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It is important to note that, before the Vietnam War, both the Mong did not mix with other groups, even with the Hmong. They tended to settle in their own villages. However, during the Vietnam War, both groups started to mix and intermingle as they formed commando units to fight against the Communists, “Viet Cong.” As a result, their families migrated from place to place. As a result, intermarriage between the two groups has continued until the present. In conclusion, no matter which country the Mong have been resettled in, whether in East Asia, Southeast Asia, North America, South America, Australia, or Europe, they have made contributions in almost every field of the economy of the country where they live. Despite their semi-traditional lifestyle, the Mong have adjusted amazingly well. Known for their intelligence, adaptability, and love for freedom, the Mong will continue to adjust as a community. Through hard work, determination, and perseverance, the young Mong have successfully acculturated into those countries and will continue to reach their full potential, contributing greatly to the advancement of life in each country where they live.
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Paoze Thao, Ph.D., is a Professor of Linguistics and Education in the Liberal Studies Department, College of Education, at California State University, Monterey Bay (CSUMB). His areas of expertise include Educational Leadership and Policy Studies, particularly in Comparative International Education, History of Education, Policy Studies, Applied Linguistics, Mong Linguistics, Teaching English and French as a Second Language, and Professional Development. He speaks, reads, and writes Mong, Lao, Thai, French (literate), and English.
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Smalley, W. A. (1994). Linguistic diversity and national unity: Language ecology in Thailand. The University of Chicago Press.
Thao, C. & Robson, B. (1982). Interim report of the Mhong Language Council conference August 12-14, 1982 at The University of Minnesota. Center for Applied Linguistics.
Thao, P. (2023). Mong education at the crossroads. (2nd ed). Hamilton Books ~ An imprint of the Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. (now Bloomsbury Publishing).
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Thao, P. (1999). Mong education at the crossroads. (1st ed). University Press of America (now Bloomsbury Publishing).
Thao, P. (1999). Mong linguistic awareness for classroom teachers. In. C. P. Park & M. M. Chi (Eds.). Asian-American Education: Prospects and Challenges (pp. 237-262). Bergin & Garvey.
Thao, P. (2000). Keebkwm Moob/Hmoob ntseeg Yexus [Mong/Hmong Christian history: 1950-2000]. Hmong District of the Christian and Missionary Alliance.
Thao, S. (1995). Ncu txug txajntsig Moob I [Commemoration of Mong veterans I]. Video-recording. Fresno, CA: ST Universal Studio.
Thao, S. (1996). Ncu txug txajntsig Moob II [Commemoration of Mong Veterans II]. Video-recording. Fresno, CA: ST Universal Studio.
Thao, Y. J. (2002). The voices of Mong elders: Living, knowing, teaching, and learning within an oral tradition. [Doctoral dissertation, Claremont Graduate University]. ProQuest Dissertation and Theses Global.
Thao, P. & Yang, C. (2004, July). The Mong and the Hmong. Mong Journal 1.
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Vietnam Project. (n.d.). The Mong. http://www.undp.org.vn/projects/vie96010/cemma/54eg/Mong.htm
_____. (1992, June 17). On the yellow rain. Wall Street Journal, Sec. A., p. 16, col. 1.
Xiong, L.; Xiong, J.; & Xiong, N. L. (1983). English-Mong-English dictionary. Milwaukee, WI: Hetrick Printing, Inc.
Xyooj, X. N. & Thoj, T. K. (1981). Kawm ntawv Moob phoo I [Mong Primer Book 1]. Windfield, IL: Mong Volunteer Literacy, Inc.
Xyooj, X. N. (1989, May). Txooj Moob huv nplajteb [The Mong in the world]. Txooj Moob. 4. Winfield, IL: Mong Volunteer Literacy, Inc.,
Yang, C. (1999). Parent-child conflict within the Mong/Hmong family [ M.A. Thesis, California State University, Sacramento].
Disclaimer: The findings, data, and conclusions presented in this manuscript are based on ongoing research, preliminary studies drawn from a plethora of literature, published and self-published, ethnographic interviews, social media, and eyewitness accounts available through personal communication and in the public domain. At the time of publication, the available evidence is not yet conclusive. This work is intended to contribute to current scientific dialogue and should not be considered a final, definitive statement or used as a basis for practical or clinical application. Further research and replication are required to validate these initial observations. Given that, the opinions expressed in this article are those of the author alone and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Mong Federation, Inc, and California State University Monterey Bay.
INTRODUCTION
From time immemorial, the Mong as a people may have existed in China for over five thousand years. The Chinese referred to them as the “Miao” (Pollard, 1909; Hudspeth, 1939; Bernatzik, 1947; Mickey, 1947; Arlotto, 1972; Thao, 1999; Thao, 2023). The Miao comprise four groups of minority peoples in China, distinctively related through culture or language, consisting of the Hmu in Guizhou, the Qo Xiong in west Hunan, the A-Mao [A-Hmao] (Hou, 2016) in Yunnan, and the Mong of Guizhou, Sichuan, Guangxi, and Yunnan (Sheposh, 2021; Encyclopedia Britannica, Tapp, n.d.;). Schotter (cited in Bernatzik, 1947), in the Chinese province of Kweichow, used 'Meau' to designate all non-Han people (p. 7). The Laotians and Thais referred to those in Laos as “Meo” (Barney & Smalley, 1953; Thao, 1999; Thao, 2023). Most of the terms “Miao,” “Mean,” and “Meo” have negative connotations. However, we call ourselves “Mong,” pronounced in phonetic transcription as [mõŋ], and spelled “Mong” in English and “Moob” in the Mong language (Thao, 1999; Thao, 2023). For the purpose of this document, the author will use the spelling term “Mong” exclusively, which we use in lieu of any other spelling terms. Given that, the spelling “Mong” will substitute for any other spelling terms in this article.
The Mong are a close-knit ethnic group, comprising approximately 7 million of the 11 Miao population worldwide. We speak a pre-Sinitic language group classified as “Mong-Mien” within the Sino-Tibetan language family in Asia (Arlotto, 1972; Thao, 1999; Thao, 2023). Because we had no writing system of our own, Mandarin and Western scholars recorded our early history until 1909. In China, British United Methodist missionary Samuel Pollard founded the Pollard Script to translate the Bible for the A-Mao (A-Hmao) (Flowery Miao) (Pollard, 1909). A specimen of the Pollard Script was examined, but it is not mutually intelligible with the RPA system currently used in the U.S. today.
In 1950s Laos, Western missionaries and linguists collaborated to create the Romanized Popular Alphabet (RPA), an orthographic system initially designed to facilitate Christian evangelism and native literacy among the Mong people. In Xieng Khouang province, Dr. G. Linwood Barney of the Christian and Missionary Alliance (CMA) began codifying the language to aid Mong Protestant converts in biblical translation and theological instruction. At the same time, French Catholic priest Father Yves Bertrais used the French language to develop a parallel Romanized script in Luang Prabang province to serve Catholic converts at Roob Nyuj Qus. Recognizing the need for a unified system, American linguist Dr. William A. Smalley from the Christian and Missionary Alliance subsequently harmonized and refined these separate frameworks, implementing a precise eight-tone marking system to standardize the orthography. Ultimately, while engineered for ecclesiastical purposes, the RPA transcended its missionary origins to become the preeminent and most widely adopted writing system across the global Mong diaspora today.
Before the mid-twentieth-century development of an indigenous orthography, Mong historical narratives were primarily mediated through Sinitic and Western scholarship. These external accounts frequently introduced ethnocentric biases, shaped by historical regional conflicts and the limitations of an etic research lens. Consequently, contemporary scholarship calls for a critical historiographical revision from an emic perspective. Today, this effort is supported by a globally dispersed Mong diaspora spanning East Asia, Southeast Asia, the Americas, Europe, and Oceania (Thao, 2023).
With regard to the early relationship with the Chinese, Hou Jian (AKA Yangf Xongx Dluas) (2016), a Mong ethnic scholar in Yunnan, in his book The Miao Guides as part of Wenshan Miao Studies Library, asserted that, the renowned Chinese historian Wang Tongling (2016) in his History of the Chinese Nation, regarded the Mong as an “elder brother” and credited them for their “criminal law, development of weapons, and establishment of religion” (General Preface, Para 2) and that “a great deal of knowledge within Han culture originated in the development of Miao culture” (Hou, 20216, Preface, Para 2) and “early Miao culture laid the foundation for the inheritance and development of Chinese and made a major contribution to Chinese culture” (Hou, 2016, Preface, Para 2).
The ancestral lineage and geographic origins of the Mong remain a subject of ongoing scholarly debate. However, at the turn of the century, Thao (1999 & 2023) postulated four theories of the Mong origin that emerged from research and studies, as discussed below:
(1) The Theory of Mesopotamian Origin stating that the Mong were from Mesopotamia (Savina, 1924);
(2) The Theory of Ultimate Southern Origin indicating that the Mong could have come from the South, either from India, Myanmar (Burma), or Tonkin (Eisktedt, 1943 as cited in Bernatzik in 1970; Graham, 1976; Linh Yeuh-Hwa, 1976; Quincy, 1988);
(3) The Theory of China Origin mentioned that the Mong were in China before the Han (Chinese) (Mottin, 1980; Bernatzik, 1970; Graham, 1976; Linh Yeuh Wah , 1976; Geddes, 1976), and
(4) The theory of Russian Origin stating that the Mong were from Siberia, Russia (Larteguy, 1976; Thao, 1999; Thao, 2023). However, most researchers believe that the Mong were in China before the Chinese. Hou Jian (AKA Yangf Xongx Dluas) (2016) confirmed that “The Yellow River is our [Mong] homeland” (Hou, 2016, Preface, Para 2).
Due to constant conflict with the Chinese, the Mong fought them for over 5,000 years. Hou Jian (AKA Yangf Xongx Dluas) (2016), a Mong ethnic scholar in Yunnan, in his book The Miao Scripture for Guiding the Way, states that, according to the History of the Miao in the 6th year of the Republic of China, the Mong in Northeastern Yunnan and Western Guizhou, including those in Yunnan, Guizhou, and Sichuan, started migrating into the Wenshan area or “Paajtawglaag” an area where the Mong lived) in 1917 and gradually moved from western Guizhou toward Kunming, Zhaotong, and Sichuan until 1921 (Hou, 2016, p. 15). In the late 18th century, around 1810, the Mong migrated from China to settle in Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, and Myanmar (Burma) (Mottin, 1980). In July 2018, the author and his family visited Wenshan (Paajtawglaag), Yunnan, China, and saw a stage in a mountainous area with a big sign that read the following words.
“HMONGB TLOUT NDEUF NAT DEUF NDOX NDROUT” in Chinese Mong, transliterated as “MONG DLHAU NTAWM NO TAWM NTUJ NRAU,” meaning “Mong Leaving This Place for Outside World” (See: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eP-rNrhBjtU)
This suggests that the Wenshan area in southeastern Yunnan Province, China, may have been a center of the Mong before they migrated to other Southeast Asian countries.
In Laos, during the Vietnam conflict, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) of the United States of America recruited the Mong to serve as the “U.S. Secret Army in Laos” to fight against the Vietnamese Communists and the Pathet Lao from 1960 – 1975. Since the Communists took over Laos in 1975, the Mong were sought for political persecution. As a result, the U.S. Congress admitted some Mong to resettle in the United States between 1975 and 1980. Other countries that admitted the Mong to resettle include France, Canada, French Guiana, Australia, Germany, and Argentina (Thao, 1999; Thao, 2023). The following is a chronology of the Mong history:
Mong history dates back to the confusion of language in Ta Soa (the “Sandy Area”) (Savina, 1924). The Mong referred to “Taj Xuabzeb Haav Suabpuam, and, for short, “Ta Soa.” Savina (1924) asserted that the Mong belonged to a subgroup of the Turanians (a Caucasoid people) originating in the Pamir Mountains of Central Asia, between Iran and Iraq. The Aryans forced them out, so they migrated through Turkestan, Russia, Siberia, Mongolia, Manchuria, Honan, Tibet, and the Yellow River. Whether the Mong constitute a branch of the Turanians or not, the question remains an open question requiring further empirical investigation.
The following is a chronicle of Mong history. Please note that a comprehensive analysis of Mong historical trajectories cannot be made without an integrated examination of Chinese historical developments, and that a comprehensive analysis of global historical trajectories likewise requires such an examination.
Chinese Legends
Chinese legends tell us that around 2700 BCE, a Chinese Emperor U-Wang ruled China, but the Mong were powerful enough to voice their concern in government, so they could not tolerate his treatment. Given that around 2500 BCE, Chinese mythology foretold that Chiyou, a legendary tribal leader thought to be a Miao leader, led the Jiuli tribe (or the Nine Li), an ancient confederation of 81 clans, to revolt against the Hoang-ti, later known as the “Yellow Emperor.” They fought at the Battle of Zhuolu (New World Encyclopedia, n.d.). Vang (2013) referred to Chiyou as “Txivyawg,” meaning "Grandfather" (p. 32). However, no historical document mentions the existence of “Txivyawg” in any literature. While some contemporary oral histories and scholars connect Chi You to the ancestry of the modern Mong people, establishing a definitive historical lineage remains complex. In official contemporary Chinese nomenclature, the Mong are classified under the broader Miao ethnonym. This designation encompasses four primary ethno-linguistic subgroups distributed across southwest China: (1) Hmu (primarily residing in southeast Guizhou); (2) Qo Xiong / Xong (or "Red Miao," situated in western Hunan); (3) A-Hmao (or "Flowery Miao," located in western Guizhou and northeast Yunnan); and Mong (dispersed across parts of Guizhou, Sichuan, Guangxi, and Yunnan). Compounding this genealogical ambiguity is the historical tendency of ancient Han-centric texts to use broad, exonymic terminology for non-Han populations, making precise historical ethno-cultural correlations difficult to verify.
After the Yellow Emperor defeated Chiyou, he began suppressing the Miao by reorganizing them into the eight-family system (Quincy, 1988 & 1995). The author thinks that the eight-family system are still known to today Mong: (1) Mong Si [Moob Sib], (2) Black Mong [Moob Dlub], (3) Mong Dlang [Moob Dlaaj], (4) Mong Sua Fang [Moob Suav Faaj], (5) Mong Yuapa [Moob Ncuav Pa], (6) Mong Yochua [Moob Yobtshuab], (7) Flowery Mong [Moob Paaj] or Mong Kuabang [Moob Quasnpaab], and (8) Mong Lahau [Moob Labhaus], according to the colors of their costumes (Thao, 1999; Thao, 2023). During the Shang Dynasty, there were no historical records or evidence that the Hmong Daw even existed yet.
The Xia Dynasty (2497 BCE – 2100 BCE)
• There was no historical record of any Chinese dynasty existing in ancient Chinese history, except for some traditional dates about the Xia Dynasty, considered mythical based on archaeological evidence along the Yellow River and ancient texts. Clouatre (2022) noted that the Xia Dynasty was traditionally regarded as the first dynasty in Chinese history, dating back to 1600 BCE. Other sources did not even mention this dynasty.
• Meyer (1994) asserted that, around 1766-1122 BCE or 1523-1027 BCE, an individual by a family name Zi developed “a remarkable civilization in the North China plain” (p. 120) evidenced by “later classics, especially the Classic of Poetry” (p. 120) recording “civilization in East Asia,” also “confirmed by archaeological discoveries” (p. 120) that “brought to light remains of the later royal Shang city” (p. 120), documenting “a major source of Shang life `
compiled in the later Zhou dynasty” (pp. 120
-1210) about Shang’s aristocracy “concerned with ritual” (p. 121). Around this era, there is no mention of the Mong.
The Zhou (Chou) Dynasty (1028 BCE-257 BCE)
• Quincy (1988 & 1994) indicated that the early King Wu of the Zhou (Chou) Dynasty faced significant obstacles in consolidating political authority from the last emperor of the Shang Dynasty and needed help from the Miao. As a result, King Wu and the Mong took an oath to be Kwvtij (sworn brothers). Later, the descendants of the Zhou Dynasty may have forgotten this oath. In A History of China, Eberhard (1950) argued that the Zhou Dynasty expanded eastward and southward and used a highly structured feudal system to maintain political and military order. So, the Zhou Dynasty encroached on the Mong from the Central Plains, but the Mong resisted, and the Zhou Dynasty subjugated them to imperial authority. Therefore, the Zhou Dynasty pushed the Mong and displaced them to Southern Kansu to serve as a political buffer in an unsecured location against a fierce mountain people controlled by a chief called “The White Wolf” (Quincy, 1988 & Quincy, 1994).
The Qin Dynasty (221 BCE – 206 BCE) or the Ch’in Dynasty (256-207 BCE)
• During the Qin Dynasty or Ch’in Dynasty, Meyer (1994) indicated that the founding monarchy structured the empire in alignment with the Legalist authoritarian school of thought (Fa-jia) articulated by preceding generations. This was based on a strict governing philosophy around total state control and draconian governance to centralize power under the emperor. However, the Mong lived in mountainous areas, so they remained outside the Qin Dynasty's geopolitical sphere, which gave them some peace and stability during this period (Quincy, 1988 & 1995).
The Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 AD).
• At the end of the Qin Dynasty, or Ch’in Dynasty, several political factions contended for succession, including the troops of the Qin and General Xiang Yu of the state of Chu in the Yangtze River Valley and a peasant colleague, Liu Bang. Then, Liu Bang emerged victorious and established the Han Dynasty (Meyer, 1994).
• Between the 1950s and the early 2000s, scholarship on the Han Dynasty—informed by Burton Watson’s translations of Sima Qian’s foundational Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian, c. 109–91 BCE) and Ying-shih Yu’s Trade and Expansion in Han China (1967)—established a clear context for Emperor Wu’s expansionist policies. Upon ascending the throne, Emperor Wu formally elevated Confucianism as the state ideology while maintaining a pragmatic tolerance for other philosophical traditions (Meyer, 1994). To consolidate imperial control over the southern frontiers, the Han administration enacted a "southern pacification" policy involving forced migration (Quincy, 1988, 1995). This strategy deployed military, social, and political mechanisms to compel indigenous southern populations to relocate to rugged, mountainous terrain. Ultimately, these colonization and resettlement initiatives aimed to subjugate local groups, including the Mong, and accelerate their Sinicization and assimilation into mainstream Chinese culture (Wikipedia, 2026).
• Meyer (1994) asserted that the Han Dynasty continued to elevate Confucianism into the political philosophy that evolved into “eclectic Confucianism” (p. 163), blending the core of Confucian moral and political doctrines with ideas from others to form an integrated school of thought.
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The Mong Kingdom (400 A.D. – 900 A.D.)
According to Quincy (1998), a historical or legendary Mong Kingdom existed from 400 to 900 A.D. By the mid-sixth century, Chinese authorities were reportedly "forced to concede the existence of a [H]Mong Kingdom" (p. 38). Narrative accounts from this period feature King "Tchu Kyou Toua Hang," whose daughter, "Ngao Shing," was said to possess a magical flag (p. 41). However, the kingdom's sovereignty was compromised by the political stratagems of Ty Ching, a commanding general in the Chinese military. General Ty Ching fabricated claims regarding the destruction of the magical flag and proposed a fraudulent peace treaty brokered by a marriage alliance between Ngao Shing and the Chinese imperial heir (pp. 41–42). When Ngao Shing rejected the proposal, Ty Ching imprisoned and tortured her, ultimately leading to her death (pp. 42–43) and the subsequent collapse of the Mong Kingdom.
Sung Dynasty (907 AD).
• The Sunday proposed a fake marriage of a Mong princess, Ngao Shing (Nkauj See), to a Chinese prince next in line for the throne and imposed a policy of fight or flight on the Mong (Quincy, 1988 & Quincy, 1995).
Tang Dynasty (618 AD – 917 A.D.)
• The Tang Dynasty sustained military campaigns were aimed at reclaiming previously lost territories and successfully integrated extensive regions into the Chinese administrative framework (Quincy, 1995). As imperial control extended into peripheral hill and mountain terrains, these expansionist policies imposed significant socio-economic hardships on indigenous populations, specifically the Mong.
Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)
• The Ming Dynasty maintained restrictive policies against the Mongols, enforced isolationist policies, including the construction of localized border fortifications along the Hunan-Guizhou frontier (Quincy, 1995). It is known as the Miaojiang Great Wall, constructed between 1544 and 1622, spanning over 120 miles (190 kilometers) through Fenghuang County in Hunan Province, China today.
Manchu Dynasty (1644-1911)
• Under the Manchu Dynasty, the Mong continued to be suppressed, marginalized, and faced severe economic exploitation through heavy taxes (Quincy, 1988; Quincy, 1995).
Mong Migration (1810-1820)
• Some of the Mong migrated to Laos by way of Vietnam, then to Myanmar (Burma), and Thailand in the late 17th century, but the influx of the Mong migration started from 1810-1820 (Mottin, 1980). The Mong from the basin of the Hoai that sprawled through Hupeh, Kiang-Si, and Hunan, and the Blue River from the basin of the West River, continued their journey to the northeast as far as Kweichow. Kweichow was the base of the Mong concentration, from
which they migrated to other provinces, such as Kiangsi in the south, Kwangtung in the north, Szechwan in the west, and Yunnan in the west (Quincy, 1988 & Quincy, 1995).
The Treaty of Tien Tshin (1884)
• In 1884, France and China signed the Treaty of Tien Tshin, and the Mong in Laos assisted France in pushing back the Chinese garrisons (the warlords and bandits) that occupied various sectors of the frontier in Laos, known as “the Black Flags,” to China (Quincy, 1988 & Quincy, 1995);
Relationship between the French and the Mong in Laos Deteriorated (1917-1922)
• In 1916, the French applied and imposed several taxes on the Mong in Laos. In 1917-1922, due to the imposition of heavy taxes on the Mong, Pang Chay led the Mong to revolt against the French, known as “The Pang Chay War” (Rog Paaj Cai), also known by the Laotian as “Rog Phi-ba” (“The Mad Spirit War”), and the French called this war “La Guerre des Fou” (The War of the Madmen) (Thao, 1999; Thao, 2023).
World War II (1941-1945)
• In 1941-1945, the Mong were involved in World War II. This war was known by the Mong as “Rog Yivpoos” (The Japanese War);
• In 1946, it was the beginning of the “Cold War” between the United States and the Soviet Union;
• In 1963-1975, the Mong in Laos were involved in “The U.S. Secret Army in Laos” as part of the Vietnam War;
• In 1975, the Mong in Laos migrated to the refugee camps in Thailand;
• In 1976, the Mong refugees in Thailand began their resettlement in Western countries, e.g., the United States, France, French Guiana, Germany, Canada, and Australia;
Classification of the Mong in the United States and in Laos
The Mong in Laos and the United States can be culturally and linguistically classified into two groups, distinguished by differences in language, culture, and costume. One group is the “Mong,” who always identify themselves as the “Mong,” phonetically transcribed as [mõŋ] and pronounced [mõŋ], with the initial “M,” and spelled “Mong.” Another group is the “Hmong,” who identify themselves as the “Hmong,” phonetically transcribed as [hmõŋ], beginning with the initial “H” and spelled “Hmong.” No matter how each group pronounced their group, [ h ] is only a puff of air as the sound [ m ] is articulated, so the correct pronunciation for both groups still comes out to [mõŋ]; so does the correct spelling “Mong.” Otherwise, the word “Hmong” will be pronounced [hmõŋ], and the people may be mistaken for “H-Mong.” Readers are encouraged to read more in Mong education at the crossroads (Thao, 2023) for more details. Authors have used the spelling term “Mong” (LeMoine, 2013) in Parlong (H)Mong. Has lug moob ha lou mong. Hais lus hmoob hai lou hmong; Lyman, 1949 as cited in the Foreword of Lyman, 1962; Barney, 1957; Lyman, 1969; Lyman, 1974: Thao, 1997; Xiong et al, 1983; Thao, 1994; Thoj, 1981, n.d.; Xiong, 1981; Thoj & Xyooj, 1984; Thao, 1999; Yang, 1999; Thao, 2000; Thao, 2023), but the spelling term “Hmong” was just introduced first time by Garrett (1974) and followed by Yang (1975).
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It is important to note that, before the Vietnam War, both the Mong did not mix with other groups, even with the Hmong. They tended to settle in their own villages. However, during the Vietnam War, both groups started to mix and intermingle as they formed commando units to fight against the Communists, “Viet Cong.” As a result, their families migrated from place to place. As a result, intermarriage between the two groups has continued until the present. In conclusion, no matter which country the Mong have been resettled in, whether in East Asia, Southeast Asia, North America, South America, Australia, or Europe, they have made contributions in almost every field of the economy of the country where they live. Despite their semi-traditional lifestyle, the Mong have adjusted amazingly well. Known for their intelligence, adaptability, and love for freedom, the Mong will continue to adjust as a community. Through hard work, determination, and perseverance, the young Mong have successfully acculturated into those countries and will continue to reach their full potential, contributing greatly to the advancement of life in each country where they live.
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Paoze Thao, Ph.D., is a Professor of Linguistics and Education in the Liberal Studies Department, College of Education, at California State University, Monterey Bay (CSUMB). His areas of expertise include Educational Leadership and Policy Studies, particularly in Comparative International Education, History of Education, Policy Studies, Applied Linguistics, Mong Linguistics, Teaching English and French as a Second Language, and Professional Development. He speaks, reads, and writes Mong, Lao, Thai, French (literate), and English.
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Thao, S. (1995). Ncu txug txajntsig Moob I [Commemoration of Mong veterans I]. Video-recording. Fresno, CA: ST Universal Studio.
Thao, S. (1996). Ncu txug txajntsig Moob II [Commemoration of Mong Veterans II]. Video-recording. Fresno, CA: ST Universal Studio.
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Yang, C. (1999). Parent-child conflict within the Mong/Hmong family [ M.A. Thesis, California State University, Sacramento].
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